The U.S. government did not adequately test the impact of a crash on a belt-restrained female dummy until 2012. Dummies for decades had been based on the average, 50th-percentile male body. According to a 2011 University of Virginia Center for Applied Biomechanics study, that meant female drivers involved in crashes had a 47 percent greater chance of serious injury than their male counterparts, and a 71 percent higher chance of a moderate injury.